Glucocorticoid Receptor

Amy Aloe '06 and Marc Mergy '06


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Contents:

(Note: Each molecule is best viewed if it is not repositioned before completing the tutorial and buttons within each section are activated in the order presented)

I. Introduction

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is a steroid hormone-activated transcription factor involved in the processes of inflammation, glucose homeostasis, bone cell turnover, cell differentiation, and lung maturation (Reichardt et al., 2000). It belongs to the extensive superfamily of nuclear receptors, which includes mineralcorticoid, estrogen, progestin, androgen, peroxisome proliferator, vitamin D and thyroid hormone receptors. GR is modular, made up of an N-terminal activation function-1 domain (AF-1), a central DNA binding domain (DBD), and a C-terminal ligand binding domain (LBD) (Bledsoe et al, 2002). GR ligands are corticosteroid analogs, including dexamethasone and prednisolone. When not bound to a ligand, chaperone proteins such as hsp90 and p23 retain GR in the cytoplasm. Once a hormone binds, the chaperone proteins are released and dimerization occurs, along with nuclear translocation of the entire receptor. Once inside the nucleus, GR can bind to specific DNA promoter elements or 'cross-talk' with specific transcription factors to repress gene activation.

Therapeutically, GR is of great interest for two reasons. First, mutations in GR play a role in Cushing’s syndrome (an endocrine disorder caused by excessive levels of cortisol, a corticosteroid), autoimmune diseases, and some cancers. Second, GR ligands are already used to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and leukemia (Barnes et al., 1998). The use of these ligands as therapy, however, is limited due to negative side effects, such as bone loss, growth retardation, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression. A better understanding of the glucocorticoid receptor would aid in the hunt for a GR ligand and possibly result in a treatment possessing all of the anti-inflammatory benefits without the disabling side-effects.


II. Ligand Binding Domain - Structure

In the absence of a ligand, the glucocorticoid receptor is retained in the cytoplasm by chaperone proteins that bind in place of a ligand in the C-terminal ligand binding domain (LBD) <> (Pratt and Toft, 1997). This interaction occurs in a hydrophobic pocket embedded within a canonical three-layer helical sandwhich, regulated by the C- terminal activation function 2 (AF-2) helix <>. When the LBD is in the apo-state it is bound to a chaperone protein - hsp90 or p23. In this deactivated state the AF-2 helix is destabilized and the LBD is able to interact with corepressors (Chen and Evans, 1995). When the appropriate ligand binds, in this case dexamethasone <>, a stabilizing conformational change in the AF-2 helix occurs. This change switches the receptor into an active conformation, enabling it to interact with coactivator proteins, such as transcriptional intermediary factor 2 <>. (TIF2; Onate et al., 1996; Voegel et al., 1996) The AF-2 partially participates in a charge clamp that stabilizes the helical ends of a conserved LLXXLL (L = Leu, X = any residue) two-turn alpha helix in the coactivator (Darimonet et al., 1998). The LBD also aids in formation of the glucocorticoid receptor homodimer, however, the arrangement of the AF-2 in that structure has yet to be defined.


III. Ligand Binding Domain - Function

Dimer formation:

The two LBD monomers <> are symmetrically arranged in the dimer. The dimer interface is maintained by hydrophobic and hydrogen bond interactions. The main hydrophobic interface consists of reciprocal interactions between Pro 625 <> and Ile 628 <> residues in the beta turns of strands 3 and 4. Hydrogen bonds between residue 547 of each monomer in helices 1 and 3 (likewise for each residue 548-551 of each monomer) <> and Gln 615 of helix 5 <> surround this hydrophobic interface and may aid in stabilizing the dimer configuration.

Recognition of TIF2:

TIF2 <>, along with other coactivators of the GR-LBD, have three conserved LLXXLL motifs. One of which, the Leu-Leu-Arg-Tyr-Leu-Leu <> sequence, forms a two-turn alpha helix. The hydrophobic leucine side chains <> fit into a groove formed by the AF-2 helix and residues from helices 3 and 4 <>. Glu 755 of the AF-2 helix and Lys 579 of helix 3 <> clamp down the N- and C-terminal ends of the coactivator helix. A second charge clamp is formed by the GR residues Asp 590 and Arg 585 <>, which interact with another LLXXLL motif of the coactivator. These charge clamps contribute to the selective binding to GR.

Recognition of Dexamethasone:

The bottom half of the LBD completely encloses dexamethasone <> in a ligand binding pocket composed of residues from the surrounding helices (3-7,10), the AF-2 helix, and residues from beta strands 1 and 2 <>. Van der Waals forces, along with extensive hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, are key factors in ligand binding. Almost every atom in the steroid core of dexamethasone is in contact with one or more hydrophobic residues within the LBD. The hydrophilic groups of the ligand form hydrogen bonds with the LBD. For example, the aromatic ring carbonyl of dexamethasone forms hydrogen bonds with Arg 611 and Gln 570 <> residues. In addition, Leu 753 of the AF-2 helix and Ile 747 and Phe 749 of the peptide loop preceding the AF-2 helix <> interact directly with dexamethasone. These interactions have a stabilizing effect of the AF-2 helix, aiding its active form, and may serve as a molecular basis for the ligand-dependent activation of the glucocorticoid receptor.

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IV. DNA Binding Domain - Structure

Once ligand binding domain the entire receptor protein is transported into the cell's nucleus and the DNA binding domain becomes active. The DNA binding region is illustrated here as two identical monomers, each of which can be divided into two submodules. Each monomer (monomer A and monomer B) is composed of three α helices <> and two β strands <> that fold into a globular structure. Each monomer is further divided into amino-terminal and carboxy-terminal fingers, each of which coordinates a Zn 2+ ion <>. Each zinc ion is bound by four tetrahedrally arranged cysteine residues (Cys 440, 443, 457, and 460 <> and Cys 476, 482, 492, and 495 <>). The zinc-nucleated submodules (the amino- and carboxcy-terminal fingers) are connected by interactions of aromatic residues Phe 463, Phe 464, Tyr 497, and Tyr 452 within an α helix and Tyr 474 from the β strand <>. This aromatic cluster is surrounded by a highly conserved hydrophobic shell <> that stabilizes each monomer and fixes its relative orientation. After one monomer binds DNA, the dimerization surface is exposed, and the other monomer cooperatively binds to the complex. Residues 477-482 form a reverse β turn, a conformation maintained by the nearby zinc center <>.

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V. DNA Binding Domain - Function

Once inside the nucleus, the glucocorticoid receptor binds DNA to regulate transcription. Each of the DNA-binding domains binds a specific DNA sequence by inserting the amino- and carboxy-terminal fingers into adjacent major grooves of a DNA molecule. The DNA binding site possesses dyad symmetry, and a three base-pair non-specific ‘spacer’ region between the two half sites. In order to fully understand the nature of the protein-DNA interaction, however, a DNA oligo with a 4 base-pair spacer was used to increase crystal resolution, resulting in a specific protein-DNA in only one of the monomers.

Each DNA half site is six base-pairs long with the conserved sequence 5’-AGAACA-tcga-TGTTCT-3’ <>. When the center of the DNA between the nucleotide half sites is used as the origin, the guanine at position 4 (5’-AGAACA-tcga-TGTTCT-3’) makes two specific hydrogen bonds with conserved residue Arg 466 <>. Thymine in position 5 (5’-AGAACA-tcga-TGTTCT )is a consistent feature of glucocorticoid response elements – its methyl group makes a favorable Van der Waals interaction with Val 462 <>;. Guanine -7 (5’-AGAACA-tcga-TGTTCT-3’) regularly forms one direct and one water-mediated hydrogen bond with Lys 461 <>.

Each monomer also makes several phosphate <> contacts with DNA: His 451 <>, two from Tyr 452 <>, Tyr 474 <>, Arg 489 <>, Arg 496 <>, Lys 490 <>, Cys 450 <>, and Arg 466 <> all contact the DNA phosphate backbone. This array of hydrogen bond contacts is very specific – it allows for the differentiation of glucocorticoid response elements from other hormone response elements (i.e. the estrogen response element). When the glucocorticoid receptor binds, the DNA molecule maintains a conformation similar to the canonical B-form with little bend or distortion. The major groove is widened by 2.0 Å at the specific interaction site, thus allowing the amino-terminal finger to be more effectively buried.

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VI. References

Barnes, P.J., Pedersen, S., and Busse, W.W. (1998). Efficacy and safety of inhaled corticosteroids. New developments. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, S1-53.

Bledsoe, R.K., Montana, V.G., Stanley, T.B., Delves, C.F., Apolito, C.J., McKee, D.D., Consler, T.G., Parks, D.J., Stewart, U.L., Willson, T.M., Lambert, M.G., Moore, J.T., Pearce, K.H., Xu, H.E. (2002). Crystal structure of the Clucocorticoid Receptor Ligand Binding Domain Reveals a Novel Mode of Receptor Dimerization and Coactivator Recognition. Cell 110, 93-105.

Chen, J.D., and Evans, R.M. (1995). A transcriptional co-repressor that interacts with nuclear hormone receptors. Nature 377, 454-457.

Darimont, B.D., Wagner, R.L., Apriletti, J.W., Stallcup, M.R., Kushner,P.J., Baxter, J.D., Fletterick, R.J., and Yamaoto, K.R. (1998). Structure and specificity of nuclear receptor-coactivator interactions. Genes Dev. 12, 3343-3356.

Luisi, B.F., Zu, W.X., Otwinowski, Z., Freedman, L.P., Yamamoto, K.R., Sigler, P.B. (1991). Crystallographic analysis of the interaction of the flucocorticoid receptor with DNA. Nature 352. 497-505.

Onate, S.A., Tsai, S.Y., Tsai, M.J., and O’Malley, B.W. (1995) Sequence and characterization of a coactivator for the steroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science 270, 1354-1357.

Pratt, W.B., and Toft, D.O. (1997). Steroid Receptor interactions with heat shock protein and immunophilin chaperones. Endocr. Rev. 18, 306-360.

Reichardt, H.M., Tronche, F., Berger, S., Kellendonk, C., and Schutz, G. (200). New insights into glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid signaling: lessons from gene targeting. Adv. Pharmacol. 47, 1-21.



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